China is one of the world’s oldest and most enduring civilizations, with a recorded history that spans thousands of years. As a major cultural, political, and economic power, China has played a critical role in shaping world history, from its ancient dynasties to its emergence as a modern global superpower. The country’s rich history is marked by periods of unity and fragmentation, cultural and scientific achievements, foreign invasions, revolutions, and rapid economic development in the 20th and 21st centuries. This timeline outlines the key events and periods in China’s long and complex history, from its earliest dynasties to the present day.

Prehistoric China and Ancient Dynasties (circa 5000 BCE – 221 BCE)

Early Settlements and the Neolithic Period (circa 5000 BCE – 2000 BCE)

• Archaeological evidence shows that early human settlements in China existed as far back as 5000 BCE, during the Neolithic period. Early farming communities were established along the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys.
• The Yangshao and Longshan cultures are two of the best-known Neolithic societies, known for their advances in pottery, agriculture, and early village life.
• The introduction of silk production and rice farming marked the beginnings of China’s agricultural society, with growing social stratification and rudimentary forms of governance.

The Xia Dynasty (circa 2070 BCE – 1600 BCE)

• The Xia Dynasty is traditionally considered the first dynasty in Chinese history, though its historical existence remains a topic of debate among historians due to a lack of definitive archaeological evidence.
• According to Chinese legend, Yu the Great founded the Xia Dynasty after successfully controlling the flooding of the Yellow River, thereby stabilizing agriculture and the early Chinese state.
• The Xia period marked the beginning of bronze casting and early forms of Chinese governance based on clan systems.

The Shang Dynasty (1600 BCE – 1046 BCE)

• The Shang Dynasty is the earliest Chinese dynasty confirmed by archaeological evidence, with its capital located at Anyang.
• The Shang rulers controlled a well-organized state and are best known for their bronze craftsmanship, which produced sophisticated ritual vessels and weapons.
• The Shang Dynasty also saw the development of oracle bones, used for divination and the earliest form of Chinese writing. This writing system evolved into modern Chinese characters.

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE – 256 BCE)

• The Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang Dynasty in 1046 BCE and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which justified the ruler’s authority as divinely ordained.
• The Zhou period is traditionally divided into two phases: the Western Zhou (1046 BCE – 771 BCE) and the Eastern Zhou (770 BCE – 256 BCE). The latter is further subdivided into the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period.
• During the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BCE – 476 BCE), Chinese states became more decentralized, leading to frequent conflicts between regional lords.
• The Warring States Period (475 BCE – 221 BCE) saw the rise of powerful states vying for dominance over China, ultimately leading to the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty.
• The Zhou era was also a time of profound intellectual and cultural development, giving rise to Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism.

Imperial China: Dynasties and Unity (221 BCE – 1912 CE)

The Qin Dynasty (221 BCE – 206 BCE)

• The Qin Dynasty, under the leadership of Qin Shi Huang, unified China in 221 BCE after conquering rival states during the Warring States Period. This marked the beginning of imperial China.
• Qin Shi Huang is credited with standardizing Chinese weights, measures, currency, and writing. He also began the construction of the Great Wall of China to defend against northern invaders.
• The dynasty is known for its harsh legalist policies and the centralization of power, but it collapsed soon after Qin Shi Huang’s death due to internal revolts and widespread unrest.

The Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)

• The Han Dynasty succeeded the Qin and is considered one of the greatest periods in Chinese history, establishing many institutions and cultural practices that defined Chinese civilization.
• The Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) was founded by Liu Bang (Emperor Gaozu), who moderated the harsh policies of the Qin and promoted Confucianism as the guiding philosophy of governance.
• During the reign of Emperor Wu (141 BCE – 87 BCE), the Han Dynasty expanded its territory and established the Silk Road, facilitating trade with Central Asia and the Roman Empire.
• The Eastern Han (25 CE – 220 CE) faced internal strife, leading to its eventual collapse, followed by the rise of powerful warlords and the Three Kingdoms Period.

The Three Kingdoms Period (220 CE – 280 CE)

• After the fall of the Han Dynasty, China fractured into three competing states: Wei, Shu, and Wu, in what is known as the Three Kingdoms Period.
• This period was marked by constant warfare and political fragmentation, as depicted in the famous historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
• In 280 CE, the Jin Dynasty briefly reunited China, but internal conflicts soon led to its downfall.

The Sui Dynasty (581 CE – 618 CE)

• After centuries of disunity, the Sui Dynasty reunified China in 581 CE under Emperor Wen. The Sui laid the foundations for the Tang Dynasty.
• Major achievements of the Sui include the construction of the Grand Canal, which connected the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers and facilitated trade and communication between northern and southern China.
• The Sui Dynasty was short-lived due to excessive military campaigns, including failed attempts to conquer Korea, which drained resources and led to widespread revolts.

The Tang Dynasty (618 CE – 907 CE)

• The Tang Dynasty is often regarded as a golden age in Chinese history, with great advancements in poetry, art, technology, and trade.
• Emperor Taizong (r. 626 CE – 649 CE) expanded China’s influence into Central Asia, while Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690 CE – 705 CE) became China’s only ruling empress, known for promoting Buddhism and strengthening the bureaucracy.
• The Tang capital, Chang’an, was a cosmopolitan city and a hub of trade along the Silk Road.
• The dynasty saw innovations in printing and gunpowder, but internal rebellions such as the An Lushan Rebellion (755 CE – 763 CE) and corruption weakened the state, leading to its eventual collapse.

The Song Dynasty (960 CE – 1279 CE)

• The Song Dynasty was divided into the Northern Song (960 CE – 1127 CE) and Southern Song (1127 CE – 1279 CE) after losing control of northern China to the Jurchen people.
• The Song period is renowned for its cultural and technological advancements, including the development of moveable-type printing, the compass, and advancements in porcelain production.
• The Song government emphasized civil administration and Confucianism, strengthening the imperial examination system for bureaucratic appointments.
• Despite its economic and cultural success, the Song Dynasty was militarily weak and faced constant threats from northern nomadic groups, eventually falling to the Mongols in 1279.

The Yuan Dynasty (1271 CE – 1368 CE)

• The Yuan Dynasty was established by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan in 1271 CE after his conquest of China, making it the first foreign dynasty to rule the entire country.
• The Yuan rulers maintained many traditional Chinese institutions but placed Mongols at the top of the social hierarchy, creating tension between the ruling elite and the Chinese populace.
• Kublai Khan expanded trade and communication through the Pax Mongolica, promoting cultural exchanges and opening China to foreign visitors like Marco Polo.
• The Yuan Dynasty eventually declined due to internal rebellions, economic problems, and factionalism, leading to its overthrow by the Ming Dynasty in 1368.

The Ming Dynasty (1368 CE – 1644 CE)

• The Ming Dynasty restored Chinese rule after the fall of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty and is remembered for its focus on rebuilding the country and restoring traditional Chinese culture.
• The Ming capital was moved to Beijing, and the Forbidden City was constructed as the imperial palace.
• Zheng He, a Ming admiral, led several naval expeditions between 1405 CE and 1433 CE, reaching as far as East Africa, showcasing China’s naval power and facilitating trade.
• The Ming Dynasty also focused on internal security, strengthening the Great Wall of China to defend against northern invasions.
• By the late 16th century, the Ming faced internal strife, corruption, and invasions by the Manchu, leading to its eventual collapse in 1644 CE.

The Qing Dynasty (1644 CE – 1912 CE)

• The Qing Dynasty was founded by the Manchu people, who overthrew the Ming and established China’s last imperial dynasty.
• The Qing Dynasty expanded China’s territory significantly, incorporating regions like Tibet, Xinjiang, and Taiwan.
• The early Qing emperors, such as Kangxi and Qianlong, presided over a period of cultural and economic prosperity. However, by the 19th century, the Qing faced internal and external challenges.
• The Opium Wars (1839–42, 1856–60) against Britain exposed China’s military weakness and resulted in unequal treaties, which ceded territory like Hong Kong to Britain and opened Chinese ports to foreign trade.
• The Taiping Rebellion (1850–64) and Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) further weakened the Qing, as internal rebellions and foreign intervention eroded the dynasty’s power.
• In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution, led by Sun Yat-sen, ended over two thousand years of imperial rule, marking the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912.

Republican China (1912 CE – 1949 CE)

The Early Republic and Warlord Era (1912 CE – 1927 CE)

• After the fall of the Qing, Sun Yat-sen became the provisional president of the newly formed Republic of China, but political instability quickly ensued.
• The early Republic was plagued by internal divisions, with regional warlords controlling much of China, leading to a period known as the Warlord Era.
• In 1921, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in Shanghai, promoting Marxist ideology and aiming to unite the country under socialism.

The Nationalist Government and the Civil War (1927 CE – 1949 CE)

• Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Kuomintang (KMT) or Nationalist Party, took control of the Chinese government in 1927 and sought to unify the country.
• Tensions between the KMT and the CCP escalated, leading to a full-scale Chinese Civil War that paused temporarily during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), when China was invaded by Imperial Japan.
• After Japan’s defeat in 1945, the civil war resumed. The communists, led by Mao Zedong, gained the upper hand and established the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, while the Nationalists retreated to Taiwan, where they continued to claim sovereignty over all of China.

The People’s Republic of China (1949 CE – Present)

The Mao Era (1949 CE – 1976 CE)

• Mao Zedong became the first chairman of the People’s Republic of China and implemented radical socialist policies aimed at transforming China’s economy and society.
• The Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) was an attempt to rapidly industrialize China’s economy but resulted in widespread famine and the deaths of an estimated 20 to 45 million people.
• The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) was another radical initiative aimed at purging capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. It led to social chaos, the persecution of intellectuals, and the destruction of cultural heritage.
• Mao’s death in 1976 marked the end of an era of radical Maoist policies.

The Reform Era under Deng Xiaoping (1978 CE – 1997 CE)

• After Mao’s death, Deng Xiaoping rose to power and introduced major economic reforms, opening China to foreign investment and introducing market-oriented reforms.
• Deng’s policies led to rapid economic growth, transforming China into a major global manufacturing hub and lifting millions of people out of poverty.
• In 1989, the Tiananmen Square Massacre occurred, when the government violently suppressed pro-democracy protests, resulting in international condemnation but solidifying the Chinese Communist Party’s control.

China’s Economic Rise and Global Influence (1997 CE – Present)

• Since the late 1990s, China has continued its economic expansion, becoming the world’s second-largest economy and a major global power.
• In 2001, China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO), further integrating its economy into the global market.
• China hosted the 2008 Beijing Olympics, showcasing its modernization and rising global influence.
• Xi Jinping became president in 2013 and has pursued policies aimed at strengthening the party’s control, reducing corruption, and expanding China’s global influence through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative.
• China continues to face challenges, including human rights concerns, regional tensions, and its relationship with Taiwan, but it remains one of the most significant powers on the global stage.